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If only Italian cities would rearm their common citizens - both militarily and civically - they could overcome foreign domination and domestic oppression by clerics and ottimati (those who supported oligarchic rule). Machiavelli firmly believed that a return to ancient domestic and military orders would enable modern Italians to beat back contemporary hegemons such as France, Spain, and the German emperor.Īfter all, the modern hegemons, as far as he was concerned, were merely paper tigers compared to their ancient counterparts. He was thoroughly inspired by how ancient Tuscans, Syracusans, Spartans, and Achaeans so valiantly, and for so long, withstood domination by imperial hegemons like Macedonia, Carthage, and Rome. Machiavelli was such a hopeful visionary about Italy’s future who drew inspiration from a vibrant Mediterranean past. Even today, famous scholars fixate on the few instances where Machiavelli depicts the people making bad choices, and they completely ignore the much more calamitous choices that he shows elites (specifically aristocratic senates) to have made in the Spartan, Roman, Venetian, and Carthaginian republics. Moreover, Machiavelli inflates the few moments in traditional political thought where authors grudgingly concede that the common people may occasionally exercise good political judgment, and he proceeds to build a novel democratic theory on that basis. Machiavelli obliterates the classical distinction between aristocrats and oligarchs, charging that socioeconomic elites are always agents of oppression over common people. Although Machiavelli never used the word “democracy,” and even though he expressed serious (but not unqualified) reservations about Athenian democracy, I’ve made the case that Machiavelli is in fact the first “democratic theorist” in the history of Western political thought.